Chapter 1 The Rise Of Nationalism in Europe

Overview

This chapter explores the emergence and development of nationalism in 19th-century Europe, tracing how it transformed political landscapes and led to the formation of nation-states. It begins with the French Revolution's role in disseminating nationalist ideas and the subsequent spread of liberalism and nationalism across Europe. The chapter discusses the conservative reaction after 1815, the role of revolutionaries, and the key movements for unification in Germany and Italy. It also examines the impact of Romanticism on nationalist sentiments and how nationalism, coupled with imperialism, fueled tensions leading to World War I. Finally, it touches upon the visual representations of nations and the rise of nationalist aspirations among colonized peoples.

The French Revolution And The Idea Of The Nation

The French Revolution of 1789 marked the first clear expression of nationalism. It transferred sovereignty from the monarchy to the citizens, promoting ideas of "la patrie" (fatherland) and "le citoyen" (citizen) to foster a collective identity. Revolutionary measures included adopting the tricolour flag, establishing a centralized administration with uniform laws, and promoting French as the national language. Revolutionaries also envisioned helping other European peoples achieve nationhood.

The Making Of Nationalism in Europe

The Aristocracy And The New Middle Class

In 18th-century Europe, a landed aristocracy dominated socially and politically. However, the rise of industrial production and trade in Western and Central Europe led to the emergence of a prosperous middle class (industrialists, businessmen, professionals). Influenced by liberal ideas of individual freedom, equality before law, and government by consent, this class advocated for constitutionalism and an end to aristocratic privileges. They promoted ideas of national unity and a unified economic territory, free from internal barriers.

What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?

Liberalism, rooted in the Latin word 'liber' (free), advocated for individual freedom, equality before the law, and government by consent. For the middle classes, it meant an end to autocracy and privileges, a constitution, and freedom of the press and association. Economically, it championed free markets and the abolition of state restrictions on trade and capital movement.

A New Conservatism After 1815

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, conservative regimes were restored across Europe. Conservatives believed in preserving traditional institutions (monarchy, church, property) but recognized that modernization could strengthen these institutions. They aimed to undo the changes brought by the French Revolution and Napoleon through the Treaty of Vienna, restoring monarchies and creating buffer states to prevent French expansion.

The Revolutionaries

Despite conservative repression, liberal nationalists operated underground through secret societies, training revolutionaries and spreading ideas of liberty and nation-states. Figures like Giuseppe Mazzini, who founded 'Young Italy' and 'Young Europe,' advocated for unified, democratic republics, challenging the post-1815 conservative order.

The Age Of Revolutions: 1830-1848

The period saw liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe, often led by the educated middle classes. The July Revolution in France (1830) led to the overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of a constitutional monarchy. This sparked revolts elsewhere, notably the Greek war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, which gained support from European liberals and artists who admired Greek culture.

The Romantic Imagination And National Feeling

Nationalism was also shaped by culture. Romanticism, emphasizing emotions, intuition, and a shared past (folk songs, poetry, dances), sought to create a sense of collective heritage and national identity. Figures like Johann Gottfried Herder promoted the idea of 'das Volk' (the people) as the basis of true German culture, while the Grimm brothers collected folktales to preserve German culture and foster national unity against French influence. Language also became a tool for resistance, as seen in Poland where the use of Polish was a symbol against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship And Popular Revolt

The 1830s and 1848 witnessed widespread economic hardship in Europe, including population growth, job scarcity, rising food prices, and poor harvests, leading to subsistence crises. These conditions fueled revolts by peasants, workers, and artisans against harsh conditions and elites. The 1848 revolution in Paris led to the abdication of the monarch and the proclamation of a republic with universal male suffrage.

1848: The Revolution Of The Liberals

Middle-class liberals organized revolutions demanding constitutionalism and national unification. In Germany, representatives met at the Frankfurt Parliament to draft a constitution for a nation-state governed by a parliament, but the King of Prussia rejected the crown, and internal divisions weakened the movement. The issue of women's rights was also debated, with women actively participating but largely denied suffrage.

The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany – Can The Army Be The Architect Of A Nation?

After 1848, nationalism shifted towards conservatism and state power. Prussia, led by Otto von Bismarck, unified Germany through wars with Austria, Denmark, and France. The process was driven by the Prussian army and bureaucracy, culminating in the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles in 1871.

Italy Unified

Italy was politically fragmented. The unification movement was led by the middle classes, with figures like Giuseppe Mazzini advocating for a republic. Count Cavour, the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, used diplomacy and war, allied with France, to defeat Austria. Giuseppe Garibaldi led volunteer forces ('Red Shirts') in southern Italy, gaining peasant support. Finally, in 1870, with French withdrawal due to war with Prussia, Rome was unified with Italy.

The Strange Case Of Britain

Britain's nation-state formation was a long process, not a sudden revolution. It involved the consolidation of English dominance over Scotland and Ireland through the Act of Union (1707) and later incorporation (1801). English culture, language, and institutions were promoted, while those of Scotland and Ireland were suppressed, forging a dominant British identity.

Visualising The Nation

To represent the abstract idea of a nation, artists used female allegories. Marianne became the symbol of the French Republic, embodying liberty and equality, while Germania symbolized the German nation, representing heroism and strength.

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the late 19th century, nationalism became more narrow and aggressive, often manipulated by European powers to serve their imperialist aims. This fueled nationalist tensions, particularly in the Balkans, a region with diverse ethnic groups under Ottoman and Habsburg rule. Rivalries among European powers (Russia, Germany, Britain, Austro-Hungary) over the Balkans intensified these conflicts, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I. Anti-colonial movements in colonized countries were also nationalist, inspired by European ideas but adapted to their own contexts, struggling for independence and collective identity.